Proto-oncogenes, which signal a cell to grow and divide.

原癌基因，向细胞发出生长和分裂的信号。

Now, interestingly, when scientists looked at the genome of elephants, for one particular tumor suppressor gene, they had 20 copies of it, and we have just one copy of it.

有趣的是，当学家们查看大象的基因组时，对于一个特定的抑癌基因，它们有 20 个副本，而我们只有一个副本。

Over time, just like with squamous cell carcinoma, mutations might accumulate in either tumor suppressor genes or proto-oncogenes that control the division of these metaplastic cells, ultimately resulting in a malignant tumor.

长此以往，和食管鳞癌一样，抑癌基因和原癌基因会积累一系列突，那些制着化生细胞的细胞周期的基因突最终会致恶性肿瘤。

Typically these are mutations in proto-oncogenes which results in a promotion of cell division, or mutations in tumor suppressor genes which results in a loss of inhibition of cell division.

通常，这些突是原癌基因突，会促进细胞分裂；或是抑癌基因突，致细胞分裂的正常抑制被解除。

And this is due to mutations in the TSC1 or TSC2 tumor suppressor genes, genes that usually suppress tumor growth, therefore a mutation leads to myocyte overgrowth.

由于TSC1和TSC2抑癌基因的突，这些基因通常抑制肿瘤生长，因此此类基因突致肌细胞过度生长。

Oncogenes help cells grow and proliferate, while tumor suppressor genes slow down cell growth and proliferation.

致癌基因加速细胞生长增殖，而抑癌基因使细胞生长增殖慢。

Fusobacteria is another genus of bacteria in the mouth that produces excessive immune responses and activates oncogenes.

梭杆菌属是口腔中另一种会引发过度免疫应答、激活癌基因的细菌。

So oncogenes or mutated tumor suppressor genes allow cells to keep growing uncontrollably resulting into tumors.

因此，癌基因或突的抑癌基因使细胞不受制增长，致肿瘤发生。

Now, there are genes that promote normal cell growth called proto-oncogenes.

这时，有一些促进正常细胞生长的基因被称作原癌基因。

So both an MYCN amplification or ALK gene fusion, where the oncogene is " turned on, " or a PHOX2B and chromosome 1 and 11 deletions, where tumor suppressor genes are " turned off, " can potentially cause uncontrolled cell growth.

因此，MYCN基因扩增或ALK基因的融合，即致癌基因被激活，或PHOX2B与1号、11号染色体缺失，即抑癌基因的失活，都能致细胞生长不受制。

When proto-oncogenes, like epidermal growth factor receptor and RAS, are activated, it turns them into oncogenes that promote cell division.

当原癌基因（如表皮生长因子受体基因、RAS基因）被激活时，它们就成了促进细胞分裂的癌基因。

You can think of proto-oncogenes as the accelerator or gas pedal and tumor suppressor genes as the brakes.

你以把原癌基因看作是加速器或是油门，把抑癌基因看作是刹车。

With mutations, proto-oncogenes become oncogenes, and these overstimulate the cell growth.

随着突，原癌基因为癌基因，这些癌基因过度刺激细胞生长。

Squamous cell cancers arise from squamous cells that undergo genetic mutations that either activate proto-oncogenes or inactivate tumor suppressor genes.

鳞状细胞癌产生于经历了基因突的鳞状细胞，基因突能激活原癌基因、或使抑癌基因失活。

Mutations can occur in tumor suppressor genes, which normally code for proteins that stop the cell cycle or promote apoptosis - so they're the cell cycle's very own brake pedal.

基因突能会发生在抑癌基因；抑癌基因的功能是编码、阻断细胞周期，或促进凋亡的蛋白质，所以它算是细胞周期的“刹车片”。

To balance out cell growth, there are other genes called tumor suppressor genes which promote apoptosis or cell death of mutated cells.

为平衡细胞生长，还有其它基因，称作抑癌基因，促进突细胞的凋亡或细胞死亡。

But even though they are dividing, these polyps only become malignant - meaning they only invade nearby tissues if there are additional mutations in other tumor suppressor genes like the p53 gene or in proto-oncogenes like K-RAS.

但即便上皮细胞在不断增殖，只有当另外的抑癌基因（如p53基因或K-RAS基因）也同时突时，这些息肉才会恶，侵犯周围组织。

Or they can occur in proto-oncogenes, which normally code for proteins that promote the cell cycle - so they're the cell cycle's accelerator pedal.

基因突也以发生在原癌基因；原癌基因的功能是编码促进细胞周期运转的蛋白质，所以它算是细胞周期的“油门”。

And when tumor suppressor genes, like the genes that encode proteins p53, p16, and the retinoblastoma protein, also called pRb, are inactivated, it removes the inhibition to cell division.

当抑癌基因（如编码蛋白质的p53基因、p16基因、成视网膜母细胞瘤蛋白或称pRb基因）失活时，抑制细胞分裂的机制就被去除了。

When oncogenes are turned on the cell is told to multiply rapidly.

当原癌基因被激活时，细胞就会被指令快速增殖。